i did it

Upadhan

Upadhan is the exalted spiritual endeavors and worship that go with the life of an every Jain Shravaka.
The Upadhan can be performed in three parts for 47 days 35 days and 28 days separately. During these days one must fast on one day and the second day one must do Ekasan, that is eating one meal in one place. It is called Nivi.
Every day one must recite the Rosary for 20 times saying the Navakar Mantra; one must also perform 100 Khamasaman [Kneeling with head touching the ground]; must also perform Kayotsarga saying the Logassa Sutra for 100 times and must also perform the Paushadh vrat etc.
Along with these, one must study some Jain Sutras.This austerity is not only severe but prolonged. Pratima: Pratima, a special austerity, must also be performed by a Shravak to purify and perfect his life. In the Jain Agama Shastras, 11 types of Pratima are mentioned.
(1) Samyaktva (2) Vrat. (3) Samayik (4) Paushadh (5) Niyam (6) Brahmacharya, (7) Sachitta Tyag (8) Uddhisht (9) Preshyarambha tyag (10) Arambha tyag (11) Shramanbhuth
This vow should be taken for one or a fixed number of days according to rules.

live and let live

Ahimsa in Jainism

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Ahiṃsā in Jainism is a fundamental principle forming the cornerstone of its ethics and doctrine. The term "ahimsa" (Sanskrit: अहिंसा, Ahiṃsā) means “non-violence”, “non-injury” or absence of desire to harm any life forms. Vegetarianism and other non-violent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of Ahiṃsā. According to Adian Rankin, the concept of Ahiṃsā is so much intertwined with Jainism that it conjures up images of ascetics who cover their mouths and sweep the ground before them with small brushes to avoid injuring the most minuscule forms of life and Jain-owned animal sanctuaries where even the sickest, most deformed birds and beasts are protected and cherished. These overt manifestations of an ancient faith challenge the comfortable - and near-universal - assumption of human precedence over other creatures.^[1]
The Jain concept of Ahiṃsā is quite different from the concept of non-violence found in other philosophies. In other religious traditions, violence is usually associated with causing harm to others. On the other hand, in Jainism, violence refers primarily to injuring one's own self – behaviour which inhibits the souls own ability to attain mokṣa or liberation.^[2] At the same time it also means violence to others because it is this tendency to harm others that ultimately harms ones own soul. Furthermore, the Jains have extended the concept of Ahiṃsā not only to humans but to all animals, plants, micro-organisms and all beings having life or life potential. All life is sacred and everyone has a right to live fearlessly to its maximum potential. The living beings do not have any fear from those who have taken the vow of Ahiṃsā. According to Jainism, protection of life, also known as abhayadānam, is the supreme charity that a person can make^[3].
Ahiṃsā does not merely indicate absence of physical violence, but also indicates absence of desire to indulge in any sort of violence.^[4] This Jain ideal of Ahiṃsā profoundly influenced Mahatma Gandhi, through his friendship with the Jain scholar Shrimad Rajchandra that it formed a basis of his satyagraha (truth struggle) against colonial rule and caused him to rethink many aspects of contemporary Hindu practices.^[1] While Jainism is not a proselytizing religion and as such has no organised system of advocating its doctrine, Jains have been forefront in strongly advocating vegetarianism and non-violence through ages.^[5] Ahiṃsā being central to the Jain philosophy, Jain Ācāryas have produced, through ages, quite elaborate and detailed doctrinal materials concerning its various aspects.

Contents [hide] 1 The vow of non-violence 1.1 The Vow of Ascetics 1.2 The Vow of the Laity 2 Jain Concept of Ahiṃsā 2.1 Hierarchy of Living Beings on basis of Senses 2.2 Carefulness 2.3 Mental States and intention 2.4 Significance of true Knowledge 2.5 Anekantavada - The non-violence of mind 3 Various aspects and consequences of violence 3.1 Dravya hiṃsā and bhāva hiṃsā 3.2 Jaina Conception of hiṃsā 3.3 Ways of committing Violence 4 The Rationale of Non violence 5 Fruits of non-violence and violence 6 Misconceptions on Non-violence 6.1 Animal sacrifices 6.2 Worshipping violent gods 6.3 Oblations to forefathers 6.4 Glory of death on the battlefield 6.5 Other wrong beliefs 7 Non-violence and vegetarianism 8 Origins and evolution of Ahimsa 9 Citations and Notes 10 Bibliography

[edit] The vow of non-violence

The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahiṃsā. The word in the middle is "ahimsa". The wheel represents the dharmacakra which stands for the resolve to halt the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth and non-violence.

Ahiṃsā is formalized into Jain doctrine as the first major vow of the ascetics and first minor vow of the laity.

[edit] The Vow of Ascetics

The Jain monks and the nuns undertake five major vows known as Mahāvratas at the time of their ordination to monkhood, out of which Ahiṃsā is the first and foremost. Jain monks and nuns must rank among the most “non-violent” people in the world. A Jain ascetic is expected to uphold the vow of Ahiṃsā to the highest standard, even at the cost of his own life. The other four major vows – truthfulness, non-stealing, non-possession and celibacy – are in fact extension of the first vow of complete non-violence^[6]. According to Amṛtacandra Sūri:

“All sins like falsehood, theft, attachment and immorality are forms of violence which destroy the purity of the soul. They have been separately enumerated only to facilitate their understanding”

- Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya 4.42.

Ascetic Practices for adherence of Ahiṃsā
The ascetic practices of total renunciation of worldly affairs and possessions, refusal to stay in a single place for a long time, continuous practice of austerities like fasting etc. are geared towards observance of ahiṃsā. The Jain mendicants abide by a rigorous set of rules of conduct, where they must eat, sleep and even walk with full diligence and with an awareness that even walking kills several hundreds of minute beings. They generally brush the ground clear of insects before they tread; some wear a small mask to avoid taking in tiny insects; some monks do not wear even clothes and eat food only when it is not prepared for themselves. The observation of three guptis or the controls of mind, speech and body and five samiti or regulation of walking, speaking, begging of food, keeping items and disposal of items are designed to help the monks in observing the vow of ahiṃsā faultlessly. In fact entire day of a Jain monk is spent in ensuring that he observes his vow of ahiṃsā through mind, body and speech faultlessly. This seemingly extreme behaviour of the monks comes from a sense that every action, no matter however subtle, has a karmic effect which can bind soul and inhibit liberation, especially those that result in hiṃsā.^[7]

[edit] The Vow of the Laity

A Jain layman, on account of his household and occupational compulsions, is unable to adhere to the five major vows of ascetic. Hence he observes aṇuvrata or minor vows which although are similar to the major vows of the ascetics are observed with a lesser severity. It is difficult to avoid some violence by a lay person to single-sensed immobile beings in the process of occupation, cooking, self defense etc. That is why he vows not to kill without a necessary purpose and determined intention, a moving sentient being, when it is innocent. Tying up, injuring, mutilating, burdening with heavy load and depriving from food and drinks any animal or human being with a mind polluted by anger and other passions are the five aticāra or transgressions of the vow of Ahiṃsā.^[8] However, it is to be understood that ultimately, there is limited spiritual progress and no emancipation unless the major vows are adhered to.
Laity Practices for adherence of Ahiṃsā
Jainism is perhaps the only religion in the world that requires all its adherents to follow a strict vegetarian diet.^[9] Vegetarian food that also involves more harm to the living beings such as roots, bulbs, multi seeded vegetables etc are avoided by strict Jains. The importance of Ahiṃsā manifests in many other ways in the daily life of Jains. For a layperson it means participating in business that results in least amount of violence to living beings. No furs, plumes or silk are worn. Use of leather is kept to a minimum and must in any event be from naturally dead animals. Food is usually eaten during the day unless unavoidable, since there is too much danger of injuring insects in cooking at night. The Jain will not use an open light nor leave a container of liquid uncovered lest a stray insect be destroyed; even with this precaution, liquids are always strained before use.^[9] Through the ages Jains have sought to avoid occupations that unavoidably entail injury, and this accounts for the disproportionate number who have entered banking, commerce and other mercantile trades.^[9]

[edit] Jain Concept of Ahiṃsā

While Jainism enjoins observance of total non-violence by the ascetics, it is often argued that the man is constantly obliged to engage in destructive activities of eating, drinking, breathing and surviving in order to support his body. According to Jainism, life is omnipresent with infinite beings including microorganisms pervading each and every part of universe. Hence it may still be possible to avoid killing of gross animals, but it is impossible to avoid killing of subtle microorganisms in air and water, plant life and various types of insects that may be crushed by walking. It would thus appear that the continual likelihood of destroying living organisms would create an inexcusable burden on the ascetics trying to follow the Jain path of total renunciation and non-violence.
However, the Jain conception of Ahiṃsā is quite different than what is commonly understood by violence. The violence is defined more by the motives and the consequences to the self rather than by the act itself. Furthermore, according to Jain Scriptures, destruction of less developed organism brings about lesser karmas than destruction of developed animals and karmas generated in observance of religious duties faultlessly disappears almost immediately. Hence, it is possible to observe complete non-violence with right knowledge, even when some outward violence occurs to living beings in the course of performing religious duties by observing carefulness and pure mental disposition without any attachment.

[edit] Hierarchy of Living Beings on basis of Senses

Jainism divides living beings on the basis of sensory organs (indriya) and vitalities or life force (praṇa) existing in such beings. Accordingly, higher the number of senses and vitalities a being has, the more is its capacity to suffer and feel pain. Hence according to Jainism, violence to higher sensed beings like man, cow, tiger and like who have five senses and capacity to think and feel pain attracts more karma than any violence to lesser sensed beings like insects, or single sensed beings like microbes and plants.^[10][11] Hence Jainism enjoins its adherents to completely avoid violence to higher sensed beings and as far as possible minimize violence to single sensed beings.

[edit] Carefulness

According to Jainism, a monk who is careless in his activities is guilty of violence irrespective of whether a living being remains alive or dies; on the other hand, the person who is ever vigilant and careful in observing the samitis experiences no karmic bondage simply because some violence may have taken place in connection with his activities.^[12] Carefulness came to be seen as a defense for the monks against violence in Jainism. One of the most famous passages in the Uttradhayana Sūtra describes Mahāvīra continually exhorting his chief disciple Gautama “to be careful all the while” ^[13] lest the opportunity to destroy all the karmas and achieve perfection in this lifetime may be lost forever on account of carelessness. Tattvārthasūtra defines hiṃsā or violence simply as “removal of life by careless activity of mind, body and speech.” Thus action in Jainism came to be regarded as truly violent only when accompanied by carlessness.

[edit] Mental States and intention

Paul Dundas quotes Ācārya Jinabhadra (seventh century), who shows that the omnipresence of life-forms in the universe need not totally inhibit normal behaviour of the ascetics:^[14]

“It is the intention that ultimately matters. From the real point of view, a man does not become a killer only because he has killed or because the world is crowded with souls, or remain innocent only because he has not killed physically. Even if a person does not actually kill, he becomes a killer if he has the intention to kill; while a doctor has to cause pain but is still non-violent and innocent because his intention is pure, for it is the intention which is the deciding factor, not the external act which is inconclusive.”

Thus pure intention along with carefulness was considered necessary to practice Ahiṃsā as Jains admitted that even if intention may be pure, careless activities often resulted in violence unknowingly.

[edit] Significance of true Knowledge

The Jains also considered right knowledge as a prerequisite for practicing Ahiṃsā. It is necessary to know what is living and what is non-living to practice Ahiṃsā faultlessly. A person who is confused between Living and non-living can never observe non-violence. Daśavaikālika Sūtra declared:

“First knowledge, then compassion. Thus does one remain in full control. How can an ignorant person be compassionate, when he cannot distinguish between the good and the evil?” – DS iv

It further declares –

“ Knowledge of living and non-living alone will enable one to become compassionate towards all living creatures. Knowing this all aspirants, proceed from knowledge to eternal virtues. What can an ignorant do ? How does he know what is noble and what is evil?" ^[15]

The knowledge is also considered necessary to destroy Karmas. Samaṇ Suttaṁ declared -

“The ignorant cannot destroy their Karmas by their actions while the wise can do it by their inaction i.e. by controlling their activities because they are free from greed and lustful passions and do not commit any sin as they remain contented.” (165)

[edit] Anekantavada - The non-violence of mind

Main articles: Anekantavada and Syadvada

Anekantavada is the principle of relativity of truth or the doctrine of multiple aspects.^[16] Jains hold that truth is multifaceted and has multiple sides that cannot be completely comprehended by anyone. Anekantavada describes the world as a multifaceted, ever-changing reality with an infinity of viewpoints relative to the time, place, nature and state of one who is the viewer and that which is viewed. What is true from one point of view is open to question from another. Absolute truth cannot be grasped from any particular viewpoint alone, because absolute truth is the sum total of all different viewpoints that make up the universe. Because it is rooted in these doctrines, Jainism cannot exclusively uphold the views of any individual, community, nation, or species.^[17] It recognises inherently that other views are valid for other peoples, and for other life-forms. This perception leads to the doctrine of syadvada or sevenfold predication stating the truth from different viewpoints. Anekantvada is the doctrine and Syadvada is its expression. According to Jaina philosophers all important philosophical statements should be expressed in this sevenfold way in order to remove the danger of dogmatism (ekanta) in philosophy.^[18]
The concept of syadvada allows the Jains to accept the truth in other philosophies from their perspective and thus inculcating a tolerance for other viewpoints. Anekantvada is non-absolutist and stands firmly against all dogmatisms, even including any assertion that only Jainism is the right religious path.^[9] It is thus an intellectual Ahimsa or Ahimsa of mind.^[1] In Anekantvada, there is no "battle of ideas", because this is considered to be a form of intellectual himsa or damage, leading quite logically to physical violence and war. In today's world, the limitations of the adversarial, “either with us or against us “ form of argument are increasingly apparent leading to political, religious and social conflicts. Even the mounting ecological crisis is linked to adversarialism, because it arises from a false division between humanity and "the rest" of nature.

[edit] Various aspects and consequences of violence

Ācārya Amṛtacandra has described as to how the consequences of violence (karmas attracted) differ from person to persons for similar and different types of acts:

• A small violence may bring serious consequences to one person, while to another person grievous violence may bring about lesser consequences. For instance, a person hunting and killing only one small animal suffers severe consequences while a person who is building a temple or hospital, suffers milder the karmic consequences even though such a building results in killing of many animals.^[19]
• Even when violence is jointly committed by two persons, the same act may result in severe consequence for one person and mild consequence for another person. This may happen in case where one person is the leader and planner of violence who binds severe karmas, while another who is simply a follower binds much lesser karmas.^[19]
• One who actually does not commit violence may be responsible for hiṃsā while one who actually commits violence is not responsible for hiṃsā. For instance, a burglar who fails in his robbery is still a felon but a diligent surgeon who is trying to save a patient is not responsible for violence even if a patient dies during the surgery.^[19]
• Persons who have not committed violence may become responsible for violence committed by others. This may happen when a violence which is carried out by someone is approved and instigated by someone else.^[19]
• Ahiṃsā often gives result of hiṃsā to one and hiṃsā may sometimes give result of Ahiṃsā to another. For instance, one person saves another from oppression by use of violence and hence enjoys consequences of Ahiṃsā although resorting to violence, while another does not act to save someone wishing that the other person is not saved and thus suffers the consequences of violence although he may have not actually done anything.^[19]

[edit] Dravya hiṃsā and bhāva hiṃsā

[edit] Jaina Conception of hiṃsā

While the Jain ascetics observe absolute non-violence, so far as a Jain householder is concerned, the violence is divided as follows :-

1. Sankalpinī hiṃsā or intentional violence – Intentional violence knowingly done is the worst form of violence and is a transgression of the laypersons vow of violence. Examples of sankalpinī hiṃsā are killing for hunting, amusement or decoration, or butchering for food or sacrifice or killing or hurting out of enimity, malice or mischief. sankalpinī hiṃsā has to be totally renounced by a householder.^[20]
2. Virodhinī hiṃsā or Self defence - Virodhini hiṃsā is committed for self-defence of self, property, family or country against violent attackers, robbers, or dacoits. A householder tries to avoid hiṃsā at all cost, but in such cases it may be unavoidable and hence should be non-vindictive and kept to barest minimum.^[20]
3. Āṛambhinī (Graharambhi) hiṃsā or domestic or household violence – This violence is unavoidable committed in the course of preparing food, household cleanliness, washing, construction of houses, wells etc.^[20]
4. Udyoginī hiṃsā or Occupational Violence – This violence is connected to occupational undertakings like agriculture, building and operating industries etc.^[20]

While sankalpinī hiṃsā has to be avoided at all costs, the other three types of hiṃsā although unavoidable in some cases, should not exceed the strict requirements of fulfilling the duties of a householder. Furthermore, they should not be influenced by passions like anger, greed, pride and deceit or they take the character of sanpalkinī hiṃsā.^[20]

[edit] Ways of committing Violence

It would be wrong, however, to conclude that ahiṃsā only prohibited physical violence. An early Jain text says: "With the three means of punishment – thoughts, words, deeds – ye shall not injure living beings." ^[9] In fact, violence can be committed by combination of the following four factors^[21] :
1. The instrumentality of our actions. We can commit violence by either through

a. body i.e. physical action,

b. speech i.e. verbal action, or

c. mind i.e. mental actions

2. The process of committing violence. This includes whether we

a. only decide or plan to act,

b. make preparations for the act e.g. like collecting necessary materials or weapons, or

c. actually begin the action

3. The modality of our action, including if we

a. we ourselves commit violence,

b. we instigate others to carry out the violence, or

c. we give our silent approval for the violence

4. The motivation for action. This includes which of the following negative emotions that the violence is motivated by.

a. Anger

b. Greed

c. Pride

d. Manipulation or deceit

Thus violence is committed by a combination of any one element of the above four factors. Due to this, there are 108 ways with which the violence can be committed.

[edit] The Rationale of Non violence

According to Jainism, the purpose of non-violence is not simply because it is a commandment of a God or any other supreme being. Its purpose is also not simply because its observance is conductive to general welfare of the state or the community.^[20] While it is true that in Jainism, the moral and religious injunctions were laid down as law by Arhats who have achieved perfection through their supreme moral efforts, their adherence is just not to please a God, but the life of the Arhats has demonstrated that such commandments were conductive to Arhat’s own welfare, helping him to reach spiritual victory. Just as Arhats achieved spiritual victory by observing non-violence, so can anyone who follows this path.^[20]
Another aspect that provides a rationale to the avoidance of hiṃsā is that, any acts of hiṃsā results in hiṃsā to self. Any act of violence though outwardly is seen to harm others, harms the soul of the person indulging in the act. Thus by an act of violence, a soul may or may not injure the material vitalities known as dravya praṇa of someone else, but always causes injury to its own bhāva praṇa or the psychic vitalities by binding the soul with karmas. It would be entirely wrong to see Ahiṃsā in Jainism in any sentimental light.^[9] The Jain doctrine of non-injury is based on rational consciousness, not emotional compassion; on responsibility to self, not on a social fellow feeling. The motive of Ahiṃsā is totally self-centered and for the benefit of the individual. And yet, though the emphasis is on personal liberation, the Jain ethics makes that goal attainable only through consideration for others.
Furthermore, according to the Jain karmic theory, each and every soul, including self, has reincarnated as an animal, plant or microorganism innumerable number of times besides re-incarnated as humans. The concept of Ahiṃsā is more meaningful when understood in conjunction with the concept of karmas. As the doctrine of transmigration of souls includes rebirth in animal as well as human form, it creates a humanitarian sentiment of kinship amongst all life forms.^[22] The motto of Jainism - Parasparopagraho jīvānām, translated as: “all life is inter-related and it is the duty of souls to assist each other”- also provides a rational approach of Jains towards Ahiṃsā.
In conclusion, the insistence of Ahiṃsā is not so much about non-injury to others as it is about non-injury and spiritual welfare of the self. The ultimate rationale of Ahiṃsā is fundamentally is about karmic results of the hiṃsā on self rather than the concern about the well being of other beings for its own sake.^[23]

[edit] Fruits of non-violence and violence

Main article: Karma in Jainism

According to the Jain scriptures, the result of the observance of Ahiṃsā is good health, a strong body, and a strong constitution in the future life. There would be happiness, comforts, long life, a good name, handsome features, and an enjoyable youth.
The results of killing would be the opposite of these things, such as lameness, incurable disease, separation from friends and relatives, sorrow, short life, and after that, an incarnation in a low state (animal or hell). According to Hemacandra, diseases like leprosy and loss of limbs are the consequences of inflicting violence.

[edit] Misconceptions on Non-violence

illustration of the Asvamedha Sacrifice in Ramayana by Sahib Din, 1652. Kausalya is depicted slaying the horse (left) and lying beside it (right)

The Jain Scriptures discuss the misconceptions that are harboured in case of Ahiṃsā. They often opposed the Vedic beliefs in sacrifices and other practices that justified violence in various ways. Ācārya Amṛtacandra’s Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya and Ācārya Hemacandra’s Yogaśāstra discusses these wrong beliefs at length to alert the Jain laity on such wrong beliefs. Following are such misconceptions that a Jain layman was advised to avoid.

[edit] Animal sacrifices

Vedics believed that animals were created for yajna (sacrifice) and hence it was not considered a slaughter, as it elevated not only the person making the sacrifice, but also the animals. This belief was denounced by Hemacandra that those who mercilessly kill the animals under the pretext of offering the oblations to gods or for the sake of sacrifices are condemned to most terrifying existence in hells. Amṛtacandra also condemned this practice by stating that it is a misconception to hold that Gods are pleased at sacrifices of living beings and there is no wrong in committing hiṃsā for the sake of religion.

[edit] Worshipping violent gods

Jain Ācāryas like Hemacandra, Somadeva, Jinasena also decried the worship of violent vedic Gods who demanded sacrifices of animals and glorified the killing of enemies. Ācārya Hemacandra says –

“It is a matter of great grief that the gods who wield weapons such as bow and arrows, mace, disc, trident etc. are worshipped as true gods.”

[edit] Oblations to forefathers

Hemacandra discusses the Vedic beliefs of offering oblations to dead ancestors to please and satisfy their souls by sacrificing various animals. This was decried by Hemacandra as thus –
The Vedic practice of offering sacrifices of animals to dead ancestors was also condemned by Jain Ācāryas.

[edit] Glory of death on the battlefield

The Hindu belief that the death in battlefield resulted in rebirth in heavens has been recorded in Mahabharata where Krsna tells Arjuna :

"Slain you will attain heavens, conquering you will enjoy earth;

Therefore rise, O Arjuna, resolved to do battle"

-Bhagavad Gita ii 37

However according to Jainas death accompanied by hatred and violence can never lead to heavens. According to a story in Bhagavati Sūtra, all the 840,000 soldiers who perished in a war between Konika, the Magadhan emperor and other kings, were either reborn in hell or as animals. Only one person who maintained equanimity in the midst of death in battlefield was reborn in heaven.

[edit] Other wrong beliefs

Additionally Amṛtacandra discusses the following wrong beliefs:

1. Animals should not be killed for guests or persons deserving respect as often advocated in certain scriptures.
2. It is also a wrong belief that wild animals that kill many other animals should be killed. This is often justified in the name of hunting of ferocious animals like tigers for sport.
3. Another wrong belief forwarded to justify killing of ferocious animals is that, these kill many lives and accumulate grave sins and hence killing them is an act of mercy. According to Jainism, killing can never be an act of mercy.
4. It is also a misconception to believe that it is advisable to kill those who are suffering so that they may get relief from agony. These sorts of arguments are forwarded to justify killing of those animals that may have become old or injured and hence have become commercially useless.
5. Other wrong beliefs are killing those who are in state of happiness or those who are in meditation under wrong belief that the mental state at the time of death will be perpetuated in future lives.
6. It is also a wrong belief that killing of self and others is justified as the soul that is imprisoned in the body will be permanent released and achieve salvation.

[edit] Non-violence and vegetarianism

Main article: Jain vegetarianism

[edit] Origins and evolution of Ahimsa

Ahiṃsā, an important tenet of all the religions originating in India, is now considered as an article of faith by the adherents of the Indian religions. However, not much is known about the historical origins of ahiṃsā and as to how it became widespread and got deeply entrenched in the Indian philosophy. Scholars speculate that the doctrine of ahiṃsā was probably first developed amongst the native non-Aryan people in around third millennium BCE and was adopted by the brahamanas during the later Upanishadic period under the influence of sramanas. The Vedas, the manusmriti, the Dharmasutra and Mahabharata contain many references on killing and slaughter of animals for sacrifices, oblations to dead ancestors, and as well as for various other occasions. However, as the doctrine of karma gained acceptance in the Hindu belief, the tenet of ahiṃsā also gained prominence. Later Hindu scriptures condemn the slaughter of animals, upholding ahimsa as one of the highest ideal. Bal Gangadhar Tilak has credited Jainism with cessation of slaughter of animals in the brahamanical religion. Not surprisingly, some scholars have traced the origin of ahiṃsā to Jainas and their precursor, the sramanas. According to Thomas McEvilley, a noted Indologist, certain seals of Indus Valley civilization depict a meditative figure surrounded by a multitude of wild animals, providing evidence of proto yoga tradition in India akin to Jainism. This particular image might suggest that all the animals depicted are sacred to this particular practitioner. Consequently, these animals would be protected from harm. This might be the first historical evidence of the practice of ahiṃsā.

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Vegetarianism

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For types of vegetarian foods, see vegetarian cuisine. For plant-based diets in animals, see herbivore.

Vegetarianism
Description	Generally, the avoidance of meat, poultry, fish, and animal by-products
Origins	Ancient India, Ancient Greece-6th century BCE and earlier
Varieties	Lacto, ovo, ovo-lacto, veganism, raw veganism, fruitarianism, su vegetarianism

Vegetarianism is the practice of following a plant-based diet including fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, nuts, and seeds, mushrooms, with or without dairy products and eggs. A vegetarian does not eat meat, including red meat, game, poultry, fish, crustacea, and shellfish, and may also abstain from by-products of animal slaughter such as animal-derived rennet, found in some cheeses, and gelatin.^[1][2] Vegetarians may consume these or other unfamiliar animal ingredients unknowingly, however.^[3]
Vegetarianism may be adopted for ethical, health, environmental, religious, political, cultural, aesthetic, economic, or other reasons, and there are a number of vegetarian diets. A lacto-vegetarian diet includes dairy products but not eggs, an ovo-vegetarian diet includes eggs but not dairy products, and an ovo-lacto vegetarian diet includes both eggs and dairy products. A vegan diet excludes all animal products, such as dairy products, eggs, and usually honey.
Semi-vegetarian diets consist largely of vegetarian foods, but may include fish or poultry, or other meats on an infrequent basis. Those with diets containing fish or poultry may define "meat" only as mammalian flesh and may identify with vegetarianism.^[4][5][6] A pescetarian diet, for example, includes "fish but no meat".^[7] The common use association between such diets and vegetarianism has led vegetarian groups such as the Vegetarian Society to state diets containing these ingredients are not vegetarian, because fish and birds are animals.^[8]

Contents [hide] 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Varieties of vegetarianism 4 Health benefits and concerns 4.1 Nutrition 4.1.1 Protein 4.1.2 Iron 4.1.3 Vitamin B12 4.1.4 Fatty acids 4.1.5 Calcium 4.1.6 Vitamin D 4.2 Longevity 4.3 Food safety 4.4 Medical use 4.5 Physiology 4.6 Animal-to-human disease transmissions 4.7 Eating disorders 5 Additional reasons for a vegetarian diet 5.1 Ethics 5.2 Religion 5.2.1 Hinduism 5.2.2 Jainism 5.2.3 Buddhism 5.2.4 Sikhism 5.2.5 Judaism 5.2.6 Classical Greek and Roman Thought 5.2.7 Christianity 5.2.8 Islam 5.2.9 Rastafari 5.3 Environmental 5.4 Labour conditions 5.5 Economic 5.6 Cultural 6 Demographics 6.1 Gender 6.2 Country-specific information 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links

[edit] Etymology

The Vegetarian Society, founded in 1847, writes that it created the word "vegetarian" from the Latin "vegetus" meaning "lively".^[9] The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and other standard dictionaries state that the word was formed from the term "vegetable" and the suffix "-arian".^[10] The OED writes that the word came into general use after the formation of the Vegetarian Society at Ramsgate in 1847, though it offers two examples of usage from 1839 and 1842.^[11]

[edit] History

Main article: History of vegetarianism

The earliest records of (lacto) vegetarianism come from ancient India and ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE.^[12] In both instances the diet was closely connected with the idea of nonviolence towards animals (called ahimsa in India) and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.^{[nb 1]} Following the Christianisation of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe.^[14] Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them eschewed fish.^[15] It re-emerged during the Renaissance,^[16] becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom;^[17] Germany, the Netherlands, and other countries followed. The International Vegetarian Union, a union of the national societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and more recently, environmental and economic concerns.

[edit] Varieties of vegetarianism

Roadside café near Kullu, India.

There are a number of types of vegetarianism, which exclude or include various foods.

• Ovo-lacto vegetarianism includes animal products such as eggs, milk, and honey.
• Lacto vegetarianism includes milk but not eggs.
• Ovo vegetarianism includes eggs but not milk.
• Veganism excludes all animal flesh and animal products, including milk, honey, eggs.^[18]
• Raw veganism includes only fresh and uncooked fruit, nuts, seeds, and vegetables.^[19]
• Fruitarianism permits only fruit, nuts, seeds, and other plant matter that can be gathered without harming the plant.^[20]
• Su vegetarianism (such as in Buddhism), excludes all animal products as well as vegetables in the allium family (which have the characteristic aroma of onion and garlic): onion, garlic, scallions, leeks, or shallots.
• Macrobiotic diets consist mostly of whole grains and beans.

Strict vegetarians also avoid products that may use animal ingredients not included in their labels or which use animal products in their manufacturing e.g. cheeses that use animal rennet (enzymes from animal stomach lining), gelatin (from animal skin, bones, and connective tissue), some sugars that are whitened with bone char (e.g. cane sugar, but not beet sugar) and alcohol clarified with gelatin or crushed shellfish and sturgeon.
Individuals may describe themselves as "vegetarian" while practicing a semi-vegetarian diet.^[21][22] In other cases, they may simply describe themselves as "flexitarians".^[21] These diets may be followed by those who reduce animal flesh consumed as a way of transitioning to a vegetarian diet or for health, environmental, or other reasons. The term "semi-vegetarian" is contested by most vegetarian groups, which state that vegetarians must exclude all animal flesh. Semi-vegetarian diets include pescetarianism, which includes fish and sometimes other seafood; pollotarianism, which includes poultry; and macrobiotic diets consisting mostly of whole grains and beans, but at times may include fish.

[edit] Health benefits and concerns

The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada have stated that at all stages of life, a properly planned vegetarian diet is "healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provides health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases". Large-scale studies have shown that mortality from ischemic heart disease was 30% lower among vegetarian men and 20% lower among vegetarian women than in nonvegetarians.^[23][24][25] Necessary nutrients, proteins, and amino acids for the body's sustenance can be found in vegetables, grains, nuts, soymilk, eggs and dairy.^[26] Vegetarian diets offer lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fibre, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals.^[27]
Vegetarians tend to have lower body mass index, lower levels of cholesterol, lower blood pressure, and less incidence of heart disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, renal disease, osteoporosis, dementias such as Alzheimer’s Disease and other disorders.^[28] Non-lean red meat, in particular, has been found to be directly associated with increased risk of cancers of the esophagus, liver, colon, and the lungs.^[29] Other studies have shown no significant differences between vegetarians and nonvegetarians in mortality from cerebrovascular disease, stomach cancer, colorectal cancer, breast cancer, or prostate cancer, although the sample of vegetarians was small and included ex-smokers who had switched their diet within the last five years.^[24] A 2010 study compared a group of vegetarian and meat-eating Seventh Day Adventists in which vegetarians scored lower on depression tests and had better mood profiles.^[30]

[edit] Nutrition

Main article: Vegetarian nutrition

A fruit and vegetable stall in Barcelona

Western vegetarian diets are typically high in carotenoids, but relatively low in long-chain n-3 fatty acids and vitamin B₁₂. Vegans can have particularly low intake of vitamin B and calcium if they do not eat enough items such as collard greens, leafy greens, tempeh and tofu (soy). High levels of dietary fibre, folic acid, vitamins C and E, and magnesium, and low consumption of saturated fat are all considered to be beneficial aspects of a vegetarian diet.^[31][32]

[edit] Protein

Protein intake in vegetarian diets is only slightly lower than in meat diets and can meet daily requirements for any person, including athletes and bodybuilders.^[33] Studies at Harvard University as well as other studies conducted in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and various European countries, have confirmed that vegetarian diets provide sufficient protein intake as long as a variety of plant sources are available and consumed.^[34] Proteins are composed of amino acids, and a common concern with protein acquired from vegetable sources is an adequate intake of the essential amino acids, which cannot be synthesised by the human body. While dairy and egg products provide complete sources for lacto-ovo vegetarians, the only vegetable sources with significant amounts of all eight types of essential amino acids are lupin, soy, hempseed, chia seed, amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa. However, the essential amino acids can also be obtained by eating a variety of complementary plant sources that, in combination, provide all eight essential amino acids (e.g. brown rice and beans, or hummus and whole wheat pita, though protein combining in the same meal is not necessary). A varied intake of such sources can be adequate, a 1994 study found.^[35]

[edit] Iron

Vegetarian diets typically contain similar levels of iron to non-vegetarian diets, but this has lower bioavailability than iron from meat sources, and its absorption can sometimes be inhibited by other dietary constituents. Vegetarian foods rich in iron include black beans, cashews, hempseed, kidney beans, lentils, oatmeal, raisins, black-eyed peas, soybeans, many breakfast cereals, sunflower seeds, chickpeas, tomato juice, tempeh, molasses, thyme, and whole-wheat bread.^[36] The related vegan diets can often be higher in iron than vegetarian diets, because dairy products are low in iron.^[32] Iron stores often tend to be lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians, and a few small studies report higher rates of iron deficiency. However, the American Dietetic Association states iron deficiency is no more common in vegetarians than non-vegetarians (adult males are rarely iron deficient); iron deficiency anaemia is rare no matter the diet.^[37][38][39]

[edit] Vitamin B₁₂

Plants are not generally significant sources of vitamin B₁₂.^[40] However, lacto-ovo vegetarians can obtain B₁₂ from dairy products and eggs, and vegans can obtain it from fortified foods and dietary supplements.^[41][42] Since the human body preserves B₁₂ and reuses it without destroying the substance, clinical evidence of B₁₂ deficiency is uncommon.^[43][44] The body can preserve stores of the vitamin for up to 30 years without needing its supplies to be replenished.^[40]
The only reliable vegan sources of B₁₂ are foods fortified with B₁₂ (including some soy products and some breakfast cereals) and B₁₂ supplements.^[45][46] The research on vitamin B₁₂ sources has increased in recent years.^[47]

[edit] Fatty acids

Plant-based, or vegetarian, sources of Omega 3 fatty acids include soy, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, canola oil, kiwifruit and especially hempseed, chia seed, flaxseed, echium seed and purslane. Purslane contains more Omega 3 than any other known leafy green. Plant foods can provide alpha-linolenic acid but not the long-chain n-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA, which are found in low levels in eggs and dairy products. Vegetarians, and particularly vegans, have lower levels of EPA and DHA than meat-eaters. While the health effects of low levels of EPA and DHA are unknown, it is unlikely that supplementation with alpha-linolenic acid will significantly increase levels.^[48] Recently, some companies have begun to market vegetarian DHA supplements containing seaweed extracts. Similar supplements providing both DHA and EPA have also begun to appear.^[49] Whole seaweeds are not suitable for supplementation because their high iodine content limits the amount that may be safely consumed. However, certain algae such as spirulina are good sources of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (AA).^[50][51]

[edit] Calcium

Calcium intake in vegetarians is similar to non-vegetarians. Some impaired bone mineralisation has been found among vegans who do not consume enough leafy greens, which are sources of abundant calcium.^[52] However, this is not found in lacto-ovo vegetarians.^[53] Some sources of calcium include collard greens, bok choy, kale, and turnip greens.^[54] Spinach, swiss chard and beet greens are high in calcium, but the calcium is bound to oxalate and therefore it is poorly absorbed.^[55]

[edit] Vitamin D

Vitamin D levels do not appear to be lower in vegetarians (although studies have shown that much of the general population is deficient^[56]). Vitamin D needs can be met via the human body's own generation upon sufficient and sensible UV sun exposure. Products including milk, soy milk and cereal grains may be fortified to provide a good source of Vitamin D^[57] and mushrooms provide over 2700 IU per serving (approx. 3 oz or 1/2 cup) of vitamin D₂, if exposed to just 5 minutes of UV light after being harvested;^[58] for those who do not get adequate sun exposure and/or food sources, Vitamin D supplementation may be necessary.

[edit] Longevity

A 1999 metastudy^[59] combined data from five studies from western countries. The metastudy reported mortality ratios, where lower numbers indicated fewer deaths, for fish eaters to be .82, vegetarians to be .84, occasional meat eaters to be .84. Regular meat eaters and vegans shared the highest mortality ratio of 1.00. The study reported the numbers of deaths in each category, and expected error ranges for each ratio, and adjustments made to the data. However, the "lower mortality was due largely to the relatively low prevalence of smoking in these [vegetarian] cohorts". Out of the major causes of death studied, only one difference in mortality rate was attributed to the difference in diet, as the conclusion states: "vegetarians had a 24% lower mortality from ischemic heart disease than nonvegetarians, but no associations of a vegetarian diet with other major causes of death were established."^[59]
In "Mortality in British vegetarians",^[60] a similar conclusion is drawn: "British vegetarians have low mortality compared with the general population. Their death rates are similar to those of comparable non-vegetarians, suggesting that much of this benefit may be attributed to non-dietary lifestyle factors such as a low prevalence of smoking and a generally high socio-economic status, or to aspects of the diet other than the avoidance of meat and fish."^[61]
The Adventist Health Study is an ongoing study of life expectancy in Seventh-day Adventists. This is the only study among others with similar methodology which had favourable indication for vegetarianism. The researchers found that a combination of different lifestyle choices could influence life expectancy by as much as 10 years. Among the lifestyle choices investigated, a vegetarian diet was estimated to confer an extra 1–1/2 to 2 years of life. The researchers concluded that "the life expectancies of California Adventist men and women are higher than those of any other well-described natural population" at 78.5 years for men and 82.3 years for women. The life expectancy of California Adventists surviving to age 30 was 83.3 years for men and 85.7 years for women.^[62]
The Adventist health study is again incorporated into a metastudy titled "Does low meat consumption increase life expectancy in humans?" published in American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, which concluded that low meat eating (less than once per week) and other lifestyle choices significantly increase life expectancy, relative to a group with high meat intake.^[63] The study concluded that "The findings from one cohort of healthy adults raises the possibility that long-term (≥ 2 decades) adherence to a vegetarian diet can further produce a significant 3.6-y increase in life expectancy." However, the study also concluded that "Some of the variation in the survival advantage in vegetarians may have been due to marked differences between studies in adjustment for confounders, the definition of vegetarian, measurement error, age distribution, the healthy volunteer effect, and intake of specific plant foods by the vegetarians." It further states that "This raises the possibility that a low-meat, high plant-food dietary pattern may be the true causal protective factor rather than simply elimination of meat from the diet." In a recent review of studies relating low-meat diet patterns to all-cause mortality, Singh noted that "5 out of 5 studies indicated that adults who followed a low meat, high plant-food diet pattern experienced significant or marginally significant decreases in mortality risk relative to other patterns of intake."
Statistical studies, such as comparing life expectancy with regional areas and local diets in Europe also have found life expectancy considerably greater in southern France, where a low meat, high plant Mediterranean diet is common, than northern France, where a diet with high meat content is more common.^[64]
A study by the Institute of Preventive and Clinical Medicine, and Institute of Physiological Chemistry looked at a group of 19 vegetarians (lacto-ovo) and used as a comparison a group of 19 omnivorous subjects recruited from the same region. The study found that this group of vegetarians (lacto-ovo) have a significantly higher amount of plasma carboxymethyllysine and advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) compared to this group of non-vegetarians.^[65] Carboxymethyllysine is a glycation product which represents "a general marker of oxidative stress and long-term damage of proteins in aging, atherosclerosis and diabetes." "Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) may play an important adverse role in process of atherosclerosis, diabetes, aging and chronic renal failure."
The largest study ever of diet vs longevity and a host of western diseases was the China Project, a "survey of death rates for twelve different kinds of cancer for more than 2,400 counties and 880 million (96%) of their citizens" combined to study the relationship between various mortality rates and several dietary, lifestyle, and environmental characteristics in 65 mostly rural counties in China conducted jointly by Cornell University, Oxford University, and the Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine over the course of twenty years. China Study A strong dose-response relationship was found between the amount of animal foods in the diet, and the top causes of mortality in the West: heart disease, diabetes, and cancer.

[edit] Food safety

Libby Sande argued in a blog for USA Today that Vegetarianism reduces E. coli infections,^[66] and in a piece for The New York Times linked E. coli contamination in food to industrial scale meat and dairy farms.^[67] E. coli infections in the US during 2006 were traced to spinach and onions.^{[68][dead link][69]}
Transmission of pathogenic E. coli often occurs via fecal-oral transmission.^[70][71][72] Common routes of transmission include unhygienic food preparation^[71] and farm contamination.^[73][74][75] Dairy and beef cattle are primary reservoirs of the E. coli strain O157:H7,^[76] and they can carry it asymptomatically and shed it in their feces.^[76] Food products associated with E. coli outbreaks include raw ground beef,^[77] raw seed sprouts or spinach,^[73] raw milk, unpasteurized juice, and foods contaminated by infected food workers via fecal-oral route.^[71] In 2005, some people who had consumed triple-washed, pre-packaged lettuce were infected with E. coli.^[78] In 2007, packaged lettuce salads were recalled after they were found to be contaminated with E. coli.^[79] E. coli outbreaks have been traced to unpasteurised apples,^[80] orange juice, milk, alfalfa sprouts,^[81] and water.^[82]
Salmonella outbreaks have been traced to peanut butter, frozen pot pies & puffed vegetable snacks.^[83] BSE, also known as mad cow disease, is linked by the World Health Organization to Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in humans.^[84]
There have been reports of fears of foot-and-mouth disease in sheep, PCBs in farmed salmon, mercury in fish, dioxin concentrations in animal products, artificial growth hormones, antibiotics, lead and mercury,^[85] pesticide contamination of vegetables and fruits, banned chemicals being used to ripen fruits.^[86][87][88]

[edit] Medical use

In Western medicine, patients are sometimes advised to adhere to a vegetarian diet.^[89] Vegetarian diets have been used as a treatment for rheumatoid arthritis, but the evidence is inconclusive whether this is effective.^[90] Dr. Dean Ornish, MD, has performed many well-controlled studies at UCSF which actually reversed Coronary artery disease (CAD) using lifestyle interventions including a low-fat vegetarian diet. Surgeon, Caldwell B, Esselstyn, MD, from the Cleveland Clinic, in a 12 year study where the diet was essentially vegan but with no added oil, demonstrated that heart attacks ceased in long standing cases of heart disease. Further, angiogram photographs taken a few years into the study showed a clear reversal of heart disease as evidenced by the return of occluded arteries to normal. Certain alternative medicines, such as Ayurveda and Siddha, prescribe a vegetarian diet as a normal procedure.^{[nb 2]}

[edit] Physiology

Humans are omnivores, based on the human ability to digest meat as well as plant foods.^[92][93] Arguments have been made that humans are more anatomically similar to herbivores, with long intestinal tracts and blunt teeth, unlike other omnivores and carnivores.^[94] Nutritional experts believe that early hominids evolved into eating meat as a result of huge climatic changes that took place three to four million years ago, when forests and jungles dried up and became open grasslands and opened hunting and scavenging opportunities.^[95][96]

[edit] Animal-to-human disease transmissions

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The consumption of meat can cause a transmission of a number of diseases from animals to humans.^[97] The connection between infected animal and human illness is well established in the case of salmonella; an estimated one-third to one-half of all chicken meat marketed in the United States is contaminated with salmonella.^[97] Only recently, however, have scientists begun to suspect that there is a similar connection between animal meat and human cancer, birth defects, mutations, and many other diseases in humans.^{[97][98][99][100][101][102][103]} In 1975, one study found 75 percent of supermarket samples of cow's milk, and 75 percent of egg samples to contain the leukemia (cancer) virus.^[98] By 1985, nearly 100 percent of the eggs tested, or the hens they came from, had the cancer virus.^[97][98] The rate of disease among chickens is so high that the Department of Labor has ranked the poultry industry as one of the most hazardous occupations.^[97] 20 percent of all cows are afflicted with a variety of cancer known as bovine leukemia virus (BLV).^[97] Studies have increasingly linked BLV with HTLV-1, the first human retrovirus discovered to cause cancer.^[97] Scientists have found that a bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV), the equivalent of the AIDS virus in cows, can also infect human cells.^[97] It is supposed that BIV may have a role in the development of a number of malignant or slow viruses in humans.^[97]
The proximity of animals in industrial-scale animal farming leads to an increased rate of disease transmission.^{[citation needed]} Transmission of animal influenza viruses to humans has been documented, but illness from such cases is rare compared to that caused by the now common human-adapted older influenza viruses,^[104] transferred from animals to humans in the more distant past.^{[nb 3][106][107][108]} The first documented case was in 1959, and in 1998, 18 new human cases of H5N1 influenza were diagnosed, in which six people died. In 1997 more cases of H5N1 avian influenza were found in chickens in Hong Kong.^[104]
Whether tuberculosis originated in cattle and was then transferred to humans, or diverged from a common ancestor infecting a different species, is currently unclear.^[109] The strongest evidence for a domestic-animal origin exists for measles and pertussis, although the data do not exclude a non-domestic origin.^[110]
According to the 'Hunter Theory', the "simplest and most plausible explanation for the cross-species transmission" the AIDS virus was transmitted from a chimpanzee to a human when a bushmeat hunter was bitten or cut while hunting or butchering an animal.^[111]
Historian Norman Cantor suggests the Black Death might have been a combination of pandemics including a form of anthrax, a cattle murrain. He cites many forms of evidence including the fact that meat from infected cattle was known to have been sold in many rural English areas prior to the onset of the plague.^[112]

[edit] Eating disorders

The American Dietetic Association indicates that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders but that the evidence suggests that the adoption of a vegetarian diet does not lead to eating disorders, rather that "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder."^[113] Other studies and statements by dietitians and counselors support this conclusion.^{[nb 4][116]}

[edit] Additional reasons for a vegetarian diet

[edit] Ethics

Main article: Ethics of eating meat

Various ethical reasons have been suggested for choosing vegetarianism.

[edit] Religion

Main article: Vegetarianism and religion

Indian cuisine offers a wide range of vegetarian delicacies because Hinduism, practiced by majority of India's populace, encourages vegetarian diet. Shown here is a vegetarian thali.

Jainism teaches vegetarianism as moral conduct as do some major^{[citation needed]} sects of Hinduism. Buddhism in general does not prohibit meat eating, while Mahayana Buddhism encourages vegetarianism as beneficial for developing compassion. Other denominations that advocate a fully vegetarian diet include the Seventh-day Adventists, the Rastafari movement and the Hare Krishnas. Sikhism^{[117][118][119]} does not equate spirituality with diet and does not specify a vegetarian or meat diet.^[120]

[edit] Hinduism

Main articles: Vegetarianism in Hinduism and Hindu dietary law

Most major paths of Hinduism hold vegetarianism as an ideal. There are three main reasons for this: the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) applied to animals;^[121] the intention to offer only "pure" (vegetarian) food to a deity and then to receive it back as prasad;^[122] and the conviction that non-vegetarian food is detrimental for the mind and for spiritual development. Hindu vegetarians usually eschew eggs but consume milk and dairy products, so they are lacto-vegetarians.
However, the food habits of Hindus vary according to their community and according to regional traditions. Historically and currently, those Hindus who eat meat prescribe Jhatka meat.^[123]

[edit] Jainism

Main article: Jain vegetarianism

Followers of Jainism believe that everything from animals to inanimate objects have life in different degree and they go to great lengths to minimise any harm to it. Most Jains are lacto-vegetarians but more devout Jains do not eat root vegetables because this would involve the killing of plants. Instead they focus on eating beans and fruits, whose cultivation do not involve killing of plants. No products obtained from dead animals are allowed. Jains hold self termination from starvation as the ideal state and some dedicated monks do perform this act of self annihilation. This is for them an indispensable condition for spiritual progress.^[124][125] Some particularly dedicated individuals are fruitarians.^[126] Honey is forbidden, because its collection is seen as violence against the bees. Some Jains do not consume plant parts that grow underground such as roots and bulbs, because tiny animals may be killed when the plants are pulled up.^[127]

[edit] Buddhism

A vegetarian dinner at a Japanese Buddhist temple

Main article: Vegetarianism in Buddhism

Theravadins in general eat meat. If Buddhist monks "see, hear or know" a living animal was killed specifically for them to eat, they must refuse it or else incur an offense. However, this does not include eating meat which was given as alms or commercially purchased. In the Theravada cannon, Buddha did not make any comment discouraging them to eat meat (except specific types, such as human, elephant, horse, dog, snake, lion, tiger, leopard, bear, and hyena flesh^[128]) but he specifically refused to institute vegetarianism in his monastic code when a suggestion had been made.
In Mahayana Buddhism, there are several Sanskrit texts where the Buddha instructs his followers to avoid meat. However, each branch of Mahayana Buddhism selects which sutra to follow and some branches of Mahayana Buddhists including the majority of Tibetan and Japanese Buddhists do eat meat while most Chinese Buddhists do not eat meat.

[edit] Sikhism

Main article: Diet in Sikhism

The tenets of Sikhism do not advocate a particular stance on either vegetarianism or the consumption of meat,^{[129][130][131][132]} but rather leave the decision of diet to the individual.^[133] The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, however, prohibited "Amritdhari" Sikhs, or those that follow the Sikh Rehat Maryada (the Official Sikh Code of Conduct^[134]) from eating Kutha meat, or meat which has been obtained from animals which have been killed in a ritualistic way. This is understood to have been for the political reason of maintaining independence from the then-new Muslim hegemony, as Muslims largely adhere to the ritualistic halal diet.^[129][133]
"Amritdharis" that belong to some Sikh sects (e.g. Akhand Kirtani Jatha, Damdami Taksal, Namdhari,^[135] Rarionwalay,^[136] etc.) are vehemently against the consumption of meat and eggs (though they do consume and encourage the consumption of milk, butter, and cheese).^[137] This vegetarian stance has been traced back to the times of the British Raj, with the advent of many new Vaishnava converts.^[133] In response, to the varying views on diet throughout the Sikh population, Sikh Gurus have sought to clarify the Sikh view on diet, stressing their preference only for simplicity of diet. Guru Nanak said that over-consumption of food (Lobh, Greed) involves a drain on the Earth's resources and thus on life.^[138][139] Passages from the Guru Granth Sahib (the holy book of Sikhs, also known as the Adi Granth) say that it is "foolish" to argue for the superiority of animal life, because though all life is related, only human life carries more importance.

"Only fools argue whether to eat meat or not. Who can define what is meat and what is not meat? Who knows where the sin lies, being a vegetarian or a non-vegetarian?"^[133]

The Sikh langar, or free temple meal, is largely lacto-vegetarian, though this is understood to be a result of efforts to present a meal that is respectful of the diets of any person who would wish to dine, rather than out of dogma.^[132][133]

[edit] Judaism

While it is neither required nor prohibited for Jews to eat meat, a number of medieval scholars of Jewish religion (e.g., Joseph Albo) regard vegetarianism as a moral ideal, not just because of a concern for the welfare of animals, but because the slaughter of animals might cause the individual who performs such acts to develop negative character traits. Therefore, their concern was with regard to possible harmful effects upon human character rather than with animal welfare. Indeed, Rabbi Joseph Albo maintains that renunciation of the consumption of meat for reasons of concern for animal welfare is not only morally erroneous but even repugnant.^[140]
One modern-day scholar who is often cited as in favour of vegetarianism is the late Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, the Chief Rabbi of Mandate Palestine. It is indeed the case that in his writings, Rabbi Kook speaks of vegetarianism as an ideal, and points to the fact that Adam did not partake of the flesh of animals. In context, however, Rabbi Kook makes those comments in his portrayal of the eschatological (messianic) era.
According to some Kabbalists, only a mystic, who is able to sense and elevate the reincarnated human souls and "divine sparks", is permitted to consume meat, though eating the flesh of an animal might still cause spiritual damage to the soul. A number of Orthodox Jewish vegetarian groups and activists promote such ideas and believe that the halakhic permission to eat meat is a temporary leniency for those who are not ready yet to accept the vegetarian diet.^[141]
Having ties with both ancient Judaism and Christianity, members of the ancient Essene religious group practiced strict vegetarianism sharing a similar belief with the Hindus'/Jains' idea of Ahimsa or "harmlessness".^[142]
Translation of the Torah's Ten Commandments state "thou shalt not murder."^[143][144] Some people argue that this can also be taken as meaning not to kill at all, animals nor humans, or at least "that one shall not kill unnecessarily," in the same manner that onerous restrictions on slavery in the Bible have been interpreted by modern theologians as to suggest banning the practice.^[145] The Torah also commands people to ritually slaughter animals when killing them, and goes into precise detail on the rituals of animal sacrifices.

[edit] Classical Greek and Roman Thought

Ancient Greek philosophy has a long tradition of vegetarianism. Pythagoras was reportedly vegetarian (and studied at Mt. Carmel, where some historians say there was a vegetarian community), as his followers were expected to be. Socrates was reportedly vegetarian, and in his dialogue of what people, or at least Philosopher-rulers, in an ideal republic should eat, he described only vegetarian food. He specified that if meat-eating was allowed, then society would require more doctors.^[146]
Roman writer Ovid concluded his magnum opus Metamorphoses, in part, with the impassioned argument (uttered by the character of Pythagoras) that in order for humanity to change, or metamorphose, into a better, more harmonious species, it must strive towards more humane tendencies. He cited vegetarianism as the crucial decision in this metamorphosis, explaining his belief that human life and animal life are so entwined that to kill an animal is virtually the same as killing a fellow human.

Everything changes; nothing dies; the soul roams to and fro, now here, now there, and takes what frame it will, passing from beast to man, from our own form to beast and never dies...Therefore lest appetite and greed destroy the bonds of love and duty, heed my message! Abstain! Never by slaughter dispossess souls that are kin and nourish blood with blood!^[147]

[edit] Christianity

Main article: Christian vegetarianism

Vegetarianism is not a common practice in current Christian culture. However, Seventh Day Adventists and traditional monastics stress vegetarianism. As well, members of the Orthodox Church may follow a vegetarian diet during 'fast' times,^[148] The concept and practice of vegetarianism have scriptural and historical support.^{[citation needed]}
There is also a strong association between the Quaker tradition within Christianity and vegetarianism dating back at least to the 18th century. The association grew in prominence during the 19th century, coupled with growing Quaker concerns in connection with alcohol consumption, vivisection and social purity. The association between the Quaker tradition and vegetarianism, however, becomes most significant with the founding of the Friends' Vegetarian Society in 1902 "to spread a kindlier way of living amongst the Society of Friends."^[149]

[edit] Islam

See also: Islam and animals

Followers of Islam, or Muslims, have the freedom of choice to be vegetarian for medical reasons or if they do not personally like the taste of meat. However, the choice to become vegetarian for non-medical reasons can sometimes be controversial. Though some more traditional Muslims may keep quiet about their vegetarian diet, the number of vegetarian Muslims is increasing.^[150]
Vegetarianism has been practiced by some influential Muslims including the Iraqi theologian, female mystic and poet Râbi‘ah al-‘Adawîyah of Basrah, who died in the year 801, and the Sri Lankan sufi master Bawa Muhaiyaddeen who established The Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship of North America in Philadelphia.^[151]
In January 1996, The International Vegetarian Union announced the formation of the Muslim Vegetarian/Vegan Society.^[152]
Many non-vegetarian Muslims will select vegetarian (or seafood) options when dining in non-halal restaurants. However, this is a matter of not having the right kind of meat rather than preferring not to eat meat on the whole.^[150]

[edit] Rastafari

Within the Afro-Caribbean community, a minority are Rastafari and follow the dietary regulations with varying degrees of strictness. The most orthodox eat only Ital or natural foods, in which the matching of herbs or spices with vegetables is the result of long and skillfully laid down tradition originating from the African ancestry and cultural heritage of Rastafari.^[153] Most Rastafari are vegetarian.^{[citation needed]} Utensils made from natural material such as stone or earthenware are preferred.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Environmental

Main article: Environmental vegetarianism

Environmental vegetarianism is based on the concern that the production of meat and animal products for mass consumption, especially through factory farming, is environmentally unsustainable. According to a 2006 United Nations initiative, the livestock industry is one of the largest contributors to environmental degradation worldwide, and modern practices of raising animals for food contributes on a "massive scale" to air and water pollution, land degradation, climate change, and loss of biodiversity. The initiative concluded that "the livestock sector emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to the most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global."^[154]
In July 2009 Nike and Timberland stopped buying leather from deforested Amazon Rainforest ^[155] a few weeks after Greenpeace report demonstrated the destruction caused by Amazon cattle ranchers. According to Arnold Newman every hamburger sold results in destruction of 6.25m2 of rain forest.^[156]
In addition, animal agriculture is a large source of greenhouse gases and is responsible for 18 percent of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO₂ equivalents. By comparison, all of the world's transportation (including all cars, trucks, buses, trains, ships, and planes) emits 13.5 percent of the CO₂. Animal farming produces 65 percent of human-related nitrous oxide and 37 percent of all human-induced methane. Methane has about 21 times more Global Warming Potential (GWP) than carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide has 296 times the GWP of CO₂.^[157]
Animals fed on grain, and those that rely on grazing, need far more water than grain crops.^[158] According to the USDA, growing the crops necessary to feed farmed animals requires nearly half of the United States' water supply and 80 percent of its agricultural land. Additionally, animals raised for food in the U.S. consume 90 percent of the soy crop, 80 percent of the corn crop, and a total of 70 percent of its grain.^[159]
When tracking food animal production from the feed through to consumption, the inefficiencies of meat, milk and egg production range from 4:1 up to 54:1 energy input to protein output ratio. This firstly because the feed first needs to be grown before it is eaten by the cattle, and secondly because warm-blooded vertebrates need to use a lot of calories just to stay warm (unlike plants or insects).^[160] An index which can be used as a measure is the efficiency of conversion of ingested food to body substance, which indicates, for example, that only 10% is converted to body substance by beef cattle, versus 19–31% by silkworms and 44% by German cockroaches.^[160] Ecology professor David Pimentel has claimed, "If all the grain currently fed to livestock in the United States were consumed directly by people, the number of people who could be fed would be nearly 800 million."^[161] To produce animal based food seems to be, according to these studies, typically much less efficient than the harvesting of grains, vegetables, legumes, seeds and fruits. However, this would not apply to animals that are grazed rather than fed, especially those grazed on land that could not be used for other purposes. Nor would it apply to cultivation of insects for food, which may be more environmentally sustainable than eating food coming from cattle farming.^[160] Meat produced in a laboratory (called in vitro meat) may be also more environmentally sustainable than regularly produced meat.^[162]
According to the theory of trophic dynamics, it requires 10 times as many crops to feed animals being bred for meat production as it would to feed the same number of people on a vegetarian diet. Currently, 70 percent of all the wheat, corn, and other grain produced is fed to farmed animals.^[163] This has led many proponents of vegetarianism to believe that it is ecologically irresponsible to consume meat.^[164] Rearing a relatively small number grazing animals is often beneficial, as observed by the Food Climate Research Network at Surrey University, which reports, "A little bit of livestock production is probably a good thing for the environment".^[165]

“	The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has estimated that direct emissions from meat production account for about 18% of the world's total greenhouse gas emissions. So I want to highlight the fact that among options for mitigating climate change, changing diets is something one should consider.	”
	— Rajendra Pachauri,[166] Chairman, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

In May 2009, Ghent was reported to be "the first [city] in the world to go vegetarian at least once a week" for environmental reasons, when local authorities decided to implement a "weekly meatless day". Civil servants would eat vegetarian meals one day per week, in recognition of the United Nations' report. Posters were put up by local authorities to encourage the population to take part on vegetarian days, and "veggie street maps" were printed to highlight vegetarian restaurants. In September 2009, schools in Ghent are due to have a weekly veggiedag ("vegetarian day") too.^[167]

[edit] Labour conditions

Some groups, such as PETA, promote vegetarianism as a way to offset poor treatment and working conditions of workers in the contemporary meat industry.^[168] These groups cite studies showing the psychological damage caused by working in the meat industry, especially in factory and industrialised settings, and argue that the meat industry violates its labourers' human rights by assigning difficult and distressing tasks without adequate counselling, training and debriefing.^{[169][170][171][172]} However, the working conditions of agricultural workers as a whole, particularly non-permanent workers, remain poor and well below conditions prevailing in other economic sectors.^[173] Accidents, including pesticide poisoning, among farmers and plantation workers contribute to increased health risks, including increased mortality.^[174] In fact, according to the International Labour Organization, agriculture is one of the three most dangerous jobs in the world.^[175]

[edit] Economic

Similar to environmental vegetarianism is the concept of economic vegetarianism. An economic vegetarian is someone who practices vegetarianism from either the philosophical viewpoint concerning issues such as public health and curbing world starvation, the belief that the consumption of meat is economically unsound, part of a conscious simple living strategy or just out of necessity. According to the Worldwatch Institute, "Massive reductions in meat consumption in industrial nations will ease their health care burden while improving public health; declining livestock herds will take pressure off rangelands and grainlands, allowing the agricultural resource base to rejuvenate. As populations grow, lowering meat consumption worldwide will allow more efficient use of declining per capita land and water resources, while at the same time making grain more affordable to the world's chronically hungry."^[176]

[edit] Cultural

Taiwanese Buddhist cuisine

People may choose vegetarianism because they were raised in a vegetarian household or because of a vegetarian partner, family member, or friend.

[edit] Demographics

[edit] Gender

A 1992 market research study conducted by the Yankelovich research organisation claimed that "of the 12.4 million people [in the US] who call themselves vegetarian, 68 percent are female while only 32 percent are male."^[177]
At least one study indicates that vegetarian women are more likely to have female babies. A study of 6,000 pregnant women in 1998 "found that while the national average in Britain is 106 boys born to every 100 girls, for vegetarian mothers the ratio was just 85 boys to 100 girls."^[178] Catherine Collins of the British Dietetic Association has dismissed this as a "statistical fluke".^[178]

[edit] Country-specific information

Labeling used in India to distinguish vegetarian products (left) from non-vegetarian products (right).

Main article: Vegetarianism in specific countries

Vegetarianism is viewed in different ways around the world. In some areas^[which?] there is cultural and even legal support, but in others^[which?] the diet is poorly understood or even frowned upon.^{[citation needed]} In many countries food labelling is in place that makes it easier for vegetarians to identify foods compatible with their diets.
In India, which has more vegetarians than the rest of the world combined (399 million as of 2006),^[179] not only is there food labelling, but many restaurants are marketed and signed as being either "Vegetarian" or "Non-Vegetarian". People who are vegetarian in India are usually lacto-vegetarians, and therefore, to cater for this market, the majority of vegetarian restaurants in India do serve dairy products while eschewing egg products. Most Western vegetarian restaurants, in comparison, do serve eggs and egg-based products.